The Age of Scientific Revolution ca

The Age of Scientific Revolution can be dated from the early 1600s
through about the end of the 18th century. As the ideas of scientific
method were carried into the social and political sphere, the effect
became known as the “enlightenment.” Textbooks in Western civilization
sometimes divide this 200-year period into the 17th century, as the
Age of Scientific Revolution, and the 18th century, as the Age of the
Enlightenment.
Several features set this period apart from others. In antiquity and in
the Middle Ages (periods [parts] I and II in this encyclopedia), it was
very rare that an invention was attributed to a single, specific individual.
As late as the 14th century, major new developments such as the
clock, playing cards, and eyeglasses had been invented anonymously,
although later historians have attempted to track down the probable
locations of those inventions. However, after the mid-1500s, scientists
and inventors, in the Renaissance spirit of individual achievement,
sought to ensure that their own names were associated with a specific
invention or scientific discovery. The 17th century was characterized by
many great disputes over priority as Robert Hooke and Christiaan
Huygens fought over who invented the balance spring, Hooke and
Isaac Newton over who discovered the laws of motion and gravity, and
Newton and Leibniz over the invention of calculus.
In some cases, money was at stake, as states often would reward inventors
with a grant of a large pension or single lump-sum payment for the
benefit their invention brought to the nation. In other cases, governments
would grant a patent guaranteeing the right to exclusively produce the
new device and to reap the financial rewards. But frequently, inventors
PART III
THE AGE OF SCIENTIFIC
REVOLUTION, 1600 TO 1790
11164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM Page 149
150 The Age of Scientific Revolution, 1600 to 1790
and scientists simply fought for the recognition, realizing that their names
would live on in history if their claim to priority were recognized.
The Age of Scientific Revolution was different from earlier eras in
another respect. During this period, several key instruments, either to
look more closely at the natural universe or to measure more accurately
some natural phenomenon, served as tools that led to further scientific
discoveries. Historians of science have debated whether the tools produced
the discoveries or whether the scientific curiosity drove the development
of the tools. Thinking about this chicken-or-egg question is
stimulated as we look closely at the invention of the telescope, the microscope,
and the mercury barometer and thermometer and at improvements
in timekeeping itself, with the pendulum clock, the balance
spring, and the chronometer. With all these tools, the scientist and the
explorer could better map the universe and begin to achieve sufficient
numerical accuracy to be able to establish the fundamental laws by
which the universe operated.
Some of the great discoveries were simply improved explanations for
long-observed phenomena. The heliocentric solar system, suggested by
Copernicus in the 16th century as an explanation for the motions of
the planets, was confirmed by the observations of Galileo, and its
mechanics were unraveled by Newton. In fact, the idea that the Earth
revolved around the Sun had tremendous impact. The idea that the
Earth had a “revolutionary” motion meant that in the languages of
western Europe, the word “revolutionary” took on its broader meaning
of “completely new.” Thus, when the French monarchy was overthrown
in 1789, the change came to be called the French Revolution.
The whole era from about 1600 to 1790 became known as one filled
with “revolutionary” ideas, not because they revolved, but because
they were as new and startling as the concept of the revolution of the
Earth around the Sun.
With the new instruments and with improved laboratory glassware,
scientists such as Robert Boyle and Blaise Pascal began to understand
the behavior of gases, and other scientists, such as Henry Cavendish,
Antoine Lavoisier, and Joseph Priestley, were able to identify oxygen
and its role in life.
During this period, the exchange of information among scientists
became regularized, with the development of national societies of scientists
and the regular publication of papers. Publication became a
means of establishing priority, and by the end of the period, the hallmarks
of the modern scientific establishment were in place, with what
11164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM Page 150
Introduction 151
later became known as peer review and regular replication of findings
to demonstrate the accuracy of a scientist’s work. Scientific knowledge
came to be formalized, and the methods for presenting the work
became better established.
Often scientific societies of the era turned their attention to practical
matters. In France, the Paris Academy worked on specific problems
assigned by governmental ministries, while in England, following the
philosophy of Francis Bacon, scientists hoped to voluntarily address the
pressing issues of the day. Two of the most important problems in
Britain in the 17th and 18th centuries were approachable with science
and engineering. With the depletion of forests for firewood, shipbuilding,
and construction, the price of fuel in Britain climbed, and coal
Many of the important scientific discoveries and technological inventions of the Age of Scientific
Revolution can be attributed to a relatively small handful of people. As can be seen from the following
table, which lists 16 of the more prominent individuals born over a period of a century in
the order of their birth, in many cases their lives overlapped and the scientists knew each other,
worked together, read each other’s work, or competed for credit for the same discoveries.
An Era of Science and Invention
Prominent Scientists in the Age of Scientific Revolution
Scientist Born–Died Major Contributions
Galileo Galilei 1564–1642 telescope; pendulum; laws of motion
Johannes Kepler 1571–1630 laws of planetary motion
William Harvey 1578–1657 circulation of blood
René Descartes 1596–1650 optics; mechanistic science
Otto von Guericke 1602–1686 vacuum pump; atmospheric pressure
Evangelista Torricelli 1608–1647 mercury barometer; atmospheric pressure
Robert Boyle 1627–1691 Boyle’s law; chemical analysis; litmus paper
Christiaan Huygens 1629–1695 light as waves; pendulum clock; motion
Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1632–1723 microscope; microscopic organisms
Robert Hooke 1635–1703 microscope; law of elasticity; biological cell
Isaac Newton 1642–1727 motion; gravity; optics; calculus
Ole Römer 1644–1710 speed of light
Gottfried von Leibniz 1646–1716 calculus
Denis Papin 1647–1712 pressure cooker; paddleboat
Jakob Bernoulli 1654–1705 calculus; probability
Edmond Halley 1656–1742 orbits of comets
11164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM Page 151
152 The Age of Scientific Revolution, 1600 to 1790
became the fuel of choice. As mines went deeper, they tended to flood,
and some means of pumping the water out became crucial. This need
pressed the development of pumps and led to the steam engine.
The other great practical problem for the expanding British Empire
was a more accurate means of determining longitude while at sea to
allow better navigation. This issue was so crucial that the British government
established the paid position of royal astronomer and built the
Greenwich Observatory in 1675. Later, the government offered a huge
cash prize of £20,000 for a method of determining longitude that
would be accurate. The quest for the prize led to the invention of the
chronometer by John Harrison.
The Paris Academy and the Royal Society put scientists in touch with
each other and stimulated the flow of information. With both institutions
and others devoted to finding practical applications, the Scientific
Revolution was as much a revolution in technology as it was in science.
Some scientists invented their own tools, while others, hearing of
reports from another country, sought to quickly emulate and improve
on the tools others had developed.
Several of the major scientists of the period discovered basic laws of
nature, and to have a law named after a scientist was perhaps the greatest
mark of achievement. For this reason, some findings were called
“laws” even before they could be demonstrated to be completely accurate,
such as “Bode’s law,” about the spacing of the planets. However,
other laws stood the test of time, such as Pascal’s law and, with some
modification, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
The relationships between science and technology, and between discovery
and invention, are some of the great issues in the history of
human progress. And in this period, a series of developments illuminate
different aspects of those relationships. Several of the greatest discoveries
were made by the inventors of the very tools with which the discoveries
were made. This can be said of Leeuwenhoek and the microscope,
Galileo and Newton and their telescopes, and Hooke and his microscope.
Some of the great instrument makers were great scientists, and
some of the great scientists were great instrument makers. Key to the
advancement of science, microscopes, telescopes, vacuum pumps, laboratory
glassware, litmus paper, balances, thermometers, and other tools
and techniques all came out of scientists’ quest for knowledge.
Some simple devices invented in the 18th century had little to do with
science but had great impact, including several improvements to textile
making such as the flying shuttle and the spinning jenny. Together, these
11164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM Page 152
Introduction 153
machine improvements, advances in basic motive power, and mechanization
of textile manufacturing set the stage for launching the Industrial
Revolution. By the end of the 18th century, the beginnings of large
capital-intensive industries wer

Результаты (русский) 1:

Возраст научной революции могут быть dated от начале XVII векачерез о конце XVIII века. Как идеи научныхметод были проведены в социальной и политической сфере, эффектстал известен как «Просвита». Учебники в Западной цивилизациииногда делят этот 200-летний период в 17 веке, какВозраст научной революции и XVIII века, как возрастПросветление.Некоторые функции установите этот период отдельно от других. В древности и вв средние века (периоды [части] I и II в этой энциклопедии), он былочень редко, что изобретение было обусловлено один, конкретный человек.Как в конце XIV века, такие как основные новые событияЧасы, игральные карты и очки были изобретены анонимно,Хотя позднее историки пытались разыскать вероятныерасположение этих изобретений. Однако после середины XVI века, ученыеи изобретателей, в духе возрождения индивидуальных достижений,стремилась обеспечить, что их собственные имена были связаны с определеннымизобретения или научные открытия. XVII века характеризоваласьМногие большие споры приоритет как Роберт Hooke и КристианГюйгенс боролись за который изобрел пружину, Гук иИсаак Ньютон над кто открыл законы движения и гравитации, иНьютона и Лейбница над изобретением исчисление.В некоторых случаях деньги поставлено на карту, поскольку государства часто будет вознаграждение изобретателейс Грант большие пенсии или одной единовременной оплаты дляпользу их изобретение, привел к нации. В других случаях правительствабы выдаче патента, гарантирующих право производить исключительноновое устройство и пожинать финансовое вознаграждение. Но часто, изобретателиЧАСТЬ IIIВОЗРАСТ НАУЧНЫХРЕВОЛЮЦИЯ, 1600 ДО 179011164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM страница 149150 лет научной революции, 1600 до 1790и ученые просто боролись за признание, понимая, что их именабудет жить в истории если были признаны их притязания на приоритет.Возраст научной революции отличается от более ранних эпох вдругой стороны. В течение этого периода, несколько ключевых инструментов, либоПосмотрите более внимательно на естественной вселенной или для более точного измерениянекоторые природные явления, служил в качестве инструментов, которые привели к дальнейшей научнойоткрытий. Историки науки обсуждали ли средства производстваоткрытия или ли научное любопытство вынудили развитияиз инструментов. Думая о этом курица или яйцо на вопросстимулируется как мы пристально смотрим на изобретение телескоп, Микроскоп,и Ртутный барометр и термометр и усовершенствованияв самой, хронометраж с маятниковые часы, балансВесна и хронометр. Все эти инструменты, ученый иисследователь может лучше карта Вселенной и начать достигать достаточноnumerical accuracy to be able to establish the fundamental laws bywhich the universe operated.Some of the great discoveries were simply improved explanations forlong-observed phenomena. The heliocentric solar system, suggested byCopernicus in the 16th century as an explanation for the motions ofthe planets, was confirmed by the observations of Galileo, and itsmechanics were unraveled by Newton. In fact, the idea that the Earthrevolved around the Sun had tremendous impact. The idea that theEarth had a “revolutionary” motion meant that in the languages ofwestern Europe, the word “revolutionary” took on its broader meaningof “completely new.” Thus, when the French monarchy was overthrownin 1789, the change came to be called the French Revolution.The whole era from about 1600 to 1790 became known as one filledwith “revolutionary” ideas, not because they revolved, but becausethey were as new and startling as the concept of the revolution of theEarth around the Sun.With the new instruments and with improved laboratory glassware,scientists such as Robert Boyle and Blaise Pascal began to understandthe behavior of gases, and other scientists, such as Henry Cavendish,Antoine Lavoisier, and Joseph Priestley, were able to identify oxygenand its role in life.During this period, the exchange of information among scientistsbecame regularized, with the development of national societies of scientistsand the regular publication of papers. Publication became ameans of establishing priority, and by the end of the period, the hallmarksof the modern scientific establishment were in place, with what11164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM Page 150Introduction 151later became known as peer review and regular replication of findingsto demonstrate the accuracy of a scientist’s work. Scientific knowledgecame to be formalized, and the methods for presenting the workbecame better established.Often scientific societies of the era turned their attention to practicalmatters. In France, the Paris Academy worked on specific problemsassigned by governmental ministries, while in England, following thephilosophy of Francis Bacon, scientists hoped to voluntarily address thepressing issues of the day. Two of the most important problems inBritain in the 17th and 18th centuries were approachable with scienceand engineering. With the depletion of forests for firewood, shipbuilding,and construction, the price of fuel in Britain climbed, and coalMany of the important scientific discoveries and technological inventions of the Age of ScientificRevolution can be attributed to a relatively small handful of people. As can be seen from the followingtable, which lists 16 of the more prominent individuals born over a period of a century inthe order of their birth, in many cases their lives overlapped and the scientists knew each other,worked together, read each other’s work, or competed for credit for the same discoveries.An Era of Science and InventionProminent Scientists in the Age of Scientific RevolutionScientist Born–Died Major ContributionsGalileo Galilei 1564–1642 telescope; pendulum; laws of motionJohannes Kepler 1571–1630 laws of planetary motionWilliam Harvey 1578–1657 circulation of bloodRené Descartes 1596–1650 optics; mechanistic scienceOtto von Guericke 1602–1686 vacuum pump; atmospheric pressureEvangelista Torricelli 1608–1647 mercury barometer; atmospheric pressureRobert Boyle 1627–1691 Boyle’s law; chemical analysis; litmus paperChristiaan Huygens 1629–1695 light as waves; pendulum clock; motionAnton van Leeuwenhoek 1632–1723 microscope; microscopic organismsRobert Hooke 1635–1703 microscope; law of elasticity; biological cellIsaac Newton 1642–1727 motion; gravity; optics; calculusOle Römer 1644–1710 speed of lightGottfried von Leibniz 1646–1716 calculusDenis Papin 1647–1712 pressure cooker; paddleboatJakob Bernoulli 1654–1705 calculus; probabilityEdmond Halley 1656–1742 orbits of comets11164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM Page 151152 The Age of Scientific Revolution, 1600 to 1790became the fuel of choice. As mines went deeper, they tended to flood,and some means of pumping the water out became crucial. This needpressed the development of pumps and led to the steam engine.The other great practical problem for the expanding British Empirewas a more accurate means of determining longitude while at sea toallow better navigation. This issue was so crucial that the British governmentestablished the paid position of royal astronomer and built theGreenwich Observatory in 1675. Later, the government offered a hugecash prize of £20,000 for a method of determining longitude thatwould be accurate. The quest for the prize led to the invention of thechronometer by John Harrison.The Paris Academy and the Royal Society put scientists in touch witheach other and stimulated the flow of information. With both institutionsand others devoted to finding practical applications, the ScientificRevolution was as much a revolution in technology as it was in science.Some scientists invented their own tools, while others, hearing ofreports from another country, sought to quickly emulate and improveon the tools others had developed.Several of the major scientists of the period discovered basic laws ofnature, and to have a law named after a scientist was perhaps the greatestmark of achievement. For this reason, some findings were called“laws” even before they could be demonstrated to be completely accurate,such as “Bode’s law,” about the spacing of the planets. However,other laws stood the test of time, such as Pascal’s law and, with somemodification, Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.The relationships between science and technology, and between discovery
and invention, are some of the great issues in the history of
human progress. And in this period, a series of developments illuminate
different aspects of those relationships. Several of the greatest discoveries
were made by the inventors of the very tools with which the discoveries
were made. This can be said of Leeuwenhoek and the microscope,
Galileo and Newton and their telescopes, and Hooke and his microscope.
Some of the great instrument makers were great scientists, and
some of the great scientists were great instrument makers. Key to the
advancement of science, microscopes, telescopes, vacuum pumps, laboratory
glassware, litmus paper, balances, thermometers, and other tools
and techniques all came out of scientists’ quest for knowledge.
Some simple devices invented in the 18th century had little to do with
science but had great impact, including several improvements to textile
making such as the flying shuttle and the spinning jenny. Together, these
11164 Carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5/27/04 10:08 AM Page 152
Introduction 153
machine improvements, advances in basic motive power, and mechanization
of textile manufacturing set the stage for launching the Industrial
Revolution. By the end of the 18th century, the beginnings of large
capital-intensive industries wer

Результаты (русский) 3:

возраст научной революции может быть от начала 1600 - х годов
через о конце 18 века.как идеи научного
метод были проведены в социальной и политической сфере, эффект
стал известен как "просветление". учебников в западной цивилизации: иногда разделить это 200 - летний период в 17 веке, как
век научная революция, и 18 векав возрасте

некоторые особенности просветления. этот период отдельно от других.в древности и средневековья (периодов в
[часть] I и II в этой энциклопедии) было
очень редко, что изобретение было обусловлено одного конкретного лица.
еще в 14 веке, новых крупных событий, таких как
часы, играя в карты, и очки были изобретены анонимно,
хотя позже историки пытались разыскать предполагаемого
местах этих изобретений.однако, после mid-1500s, ученые
и изобретателей, в эпоху возрождения духа индивидуальные достижения,
стремится обеспечить, чтобы их имена были связаны с конкретным
изобретение или научных открытий.17 - го века характеризовалась
много споров по поводу приоритетом, как роберт гук и христиан гюйгенс "спорили о том, кто изобрел баланс весной, гук и
исаак ньютон над тем, кто обнаружил законы движения и тяжести и
ньютона и лейбница за изобретение исчисление.
в некоторых случаях деньги на карту, как государства часто вознаградит изобретателей
с грант большой пенсии или единого паушальной суммы для
благо их изобретение принесло государству.в других случаях правительства
предоставит патент, гарантирующих право на исключительно производят
нового устройства и извлекать финансовую выгоду.но часто, изобретатели: часть III
возраста научно
революции, 1600 - 1790
11164 carlisle_p03.m.qxd 5 / 27 / 04 05:11 я стр. 149
150 лет научной революции, 1600 - 1790.и ученые просто борются за признание, понимая, что их имена будут жить в истории ", если их претензии к приоритетным признаются.
век научная революция, отличается от предыдущих эпох в
другой связи.в этот период несколько ключевых документов, либо
более внимательно взглянуть на природные вселенной или меры более точно: некоторые природные явления,служил в качестве инструментов, которые привели к дальнейшей научной
открытий.историки науки обсуждали ли средства, разработанные
открытий или научного любопытства поехал развития
из инструментов.об этом подумала, курица или яйцо вопрос
стимулирует, как мы внимательно посмотрим на изобретения телескопа, микроскоп,
и ртути, барометр и термометр и усовершенствования
в часового, с маятником, часы, баланс: весна, и хронометр.все эти инструменты, ученый и
Explorer может лучше карту вселенной и начать обеспечивать достаточную
цифровой точностью установить основные законы, которые действуют в
вселенной.